Chapter 8 – The Making of the National Movement: 1870s–1947 Notes

Content Structure

1. The Emergence of Nationalism
- 1A. A nation in the making
- 1B. “Freedom is our birthright”
2. The Growth of Mass Nationalism
- 2A. The advent of Mahatma Gandhi
- 2B. The Rowlatt Satyagraha
- 2C. Khilafat agitation and the Non-Cooperation Movement
- 2D. People’s initiatives
- 2E. The people’s Mahatma
- 2F. The happenings of 1922–1929
3. The March to Dandi
4. Quit India and Later
- 4A. Towards Independence and Partition

1. The Emergence of Nationalism

(i) Rise of Political Associations

The years after 1850 saw the start of many new political groups, especially in the 1870s and 1880s.
Leading workers who know English, like lawyers.
Key associations:
- Poona Sarvajanik Sabha
- Indian Association
- Madras Mahajan Sabha
- Bombay Presidency Association
- Indian National Congress (INC)
Meaning of “Sarvajanik” = For all people (Sarva = all, Janik = people)

(ii) Fighting for Everyone, Not Just One Group

Their goal was for all Indians, even though some groups worked in certain areas.
They thought that the Indians, not the British, should make decisions.
It was a big step toward nationalism, which means loving your country and freedom.

(iii) Unfair British Laws

The Arms Act of 1878 said that Indians could not own arms.
- 1878: The British banned the Vernacular Press Act
  - The British shut down newspapers that wrote bad things about them.
1883: Ilbert Bill
- There was a plan to make a law that would let Indian courts try British people.
- The British people were strongly against it, so the government concealed it.
- It showed that the British were racist, which made Indians very angry.

(iv) Need for a National Organization

Indians who went to school wanted to fight for their rights as a single group since 1880.
This desire became stronger after the Ilbert Bill controversy in 1883.

(v) Establishment of INC (1885)

In December 1885, 72 leaders from all over India met in Bombay to form the Indian National Congress (INC).

(vi) Early Leaders of INC

Dadabhai Naoroji
Pherozeshah Mehta
Badruddin Tyabji
W.C. Bonnerji
Surendranath Banerji
Romesh Chandra Dutt
S. Subramania Iyer

(vii) Role of Naoroji and A.O. Hume

Dadabhai Naoroji, a businessman and British MP, inspired and guided young leaders.
A.O. Hume, a former British soldier, helped bring together Indians from different parts of the country.

Sovereign – The capacity to act independently without outside interference.

Publicist – Someone who publicises an idea by circulating information, writing reports, speaking at meetings.

1A. A nation in the making

(i) Goals of the Early Congress (Moderates)

In its early years, Congress was called “moderate” because it tried to solve problems peacefully.
It asks for
- A bigger role for Indians in the government.
- Legislatures that have more power and are better represented.
- India can get higher government jobs by taking the Civil Service Exams in India, not just London.

(ii) Demand for Indianisation of Administration

British officials held most of the top government jobs because they didn’t think Indians were smart enough to do them.
India lost a lot of money when British soldiers sent their pay back to England.
It would help the economy if more jobs were available for Indians.

(iii) Demands for Rights and Reforms

The judiciary should be kept separate from the government (to make sure fair justice).
The Arms Act should be thrown out so that Indians could keep their guns like the British.
Speaking and writing freely (against suppression).

(iv) Economic Issues Raised by Congress

Famine and poverty were caused by British rule.
Peasants and zamindars got poorer when land income increased.
India had trouble getting enough food because they sent too many grains to Europe.
Demands included:
- Lower land taxes
- Cut in military expenses
- More money for irrigation
- Reducing salt tax
- Better treatment of Indian workers abroad
- Protection of forest dwellers’ rights

(v) Methods Used by Moderate Leaders

Raised awareness about British abuse by:
- Newspapers and writing
- Speeches in public
- Visiting many places in India to get help
The British cared about freedom and fairness, so they would agree to Indian requests peacefully if they were put forward in the right way.

Repeal – To undo law; to officially end the validity of something such as a law.

1B. “Freedom is our birthright.”

(i) Growing Criticism of the Congress (1890s)

Many Indians questioned the moderate approach of the Congress.
Radical leaders emerged in Bengal, Maharashtra, and Punjab:
- Bepin Chandra Pal
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak
- Lala Lajpat Rai
They criticized the Moderates for relying on the British and called for self-reliance and direct action.
Tilak’s famous slogan: “Freedom is my birthright, and I shall have it!”

(ii) Partition of Bengal (1905)

Viceroy Curzon said that dividing Bengal was necessary for better management.
The real reason is to make Hindus and Muslims dislike each other and weaken Bengali pride.
People in India were angry when East Bengal was joined with Assam.

(iii) Swadeshi Movement (1905-1911)

people all over India complained and stopped buying British goods after Bengal divided
Goals of the Swadeshi Movement:
- Oppose British rule
- Promote self-reliance
- Support Indian industries and goods
- Encourage education in Indian languages.
The movement was known as the Vandemataram Movement in Andhra Pradesh.
Some radicals wanted to abolish British power through revolutionary violence.

(iv) Formation of the Muslim League (1906)

In Dacca, which is now Dhaka, Muslim farmers and nawabs came together to make the All India Muslim League.
The League backed the separation of Bengal.
Muslims needed their own voting districts, which the British gave them in 1909.
When politicians wanted to get an advantage in the election, they started splitting people by religion.

(v) Congress Split & Reunion (1907-1915)

1907: Congress fractured into
- Moderates wanted peaceful ways to do things.
- Extremists (Tilak’s followers) wanted people to stop buying things and take direct action.
In 1915, after years of being split up, both groups got back together.
The Congress and the Muslim League agreed to work together for democratic government in India when they signed the Lucknow Pact in 1916.

Revolutionary violence- The use of violence to make a radical change within society.

Council – An appointed or elected body of people with an administrative, advisory or representative function.

2. The Growth of Mass Nationalism

(i) Freedom Struggle Becomes a Mass Movement (After 1919)

The fight against British rule now included:
- Peasants, tribals, students, women, and factory workers.
- Business groups also started supporting the Congress.

(ii) How World War I Changed India

More money is spent on defense by Britain:
- The Indian government spent a lot of money on the war.
- Taxes and business gains were taxed more.
- The cost of things went through the roof, which made life tough for regular people.
There were more industries, but they disappeared.
- The war made more people want industrial goods like cloth, jute bags, and resources for building railroads.
- Lower imports from other countries helped Indian businesses grow.
- Indian business groups wanted more chances for the economy to grow.

(iii) Forced Recruitment in the British Army

The British forced Indian villages to provide soldiers for the war.
Many Indian soldiers fought abroad and realized how imperialist powers exploited colonies.
They returned with new ideas and a stronger desire to fight for India’s freedom.

(iv) Russian Revolution’s Influence (1917)

Indian patriots got ideas from the Russian Revolution.
In India, word spread of the difficulties of farmers and workers.
People became more interested in socialism and equality.

2A. The advent of Mahatma Gandhi

(i) Gandhi’s Arrival in India (1915)

In 1915, when he was 46 years old, Mahatma Gandhi went back to India.
He was a recognized leader all over the world because he had already led peaceful protests against racism in South Africa.
By working in South Africa, he met Indians of all religions, social groups, and regions.

(ii) Gandhi’s Early Years in India

He went on a trip around India to learn about the people’s issues.
His first major involvement was in local struggles in:
- Champaran (1917) – Supported indigo farmers against British planters.
- Kheda (1918) – Helped peasants demand tax relief after famine.
- Ahmedabad (1918) – Led a successful mill workers’ strike for better wages.
He worked with Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and other figures during these times.

(iii) Gandhi Becomes a Mass Leader

Many people liked him because he lived a simple life, told the truth, and didn’t use violence.
Indians quickly came together to fight for freedom because of the way he led them.

(iv) The Next Phase (1919-1922)

After these early fights, Gandhi led big movements against British rule from 1919 to 1922.

2B. The Rowlatt Satyagraha

(i) The Rowlatt Act and Gandhi’s Protest

The British passed the Rowlatt Act in 1919. It limited basic rights like free speech and gave the cops more power.
Gandhi, Jinnah, and others were against it because they thought it was cruel and unfair.
On April 6, 1919, Gandhi called for a day of protest and asked people to:
- Pay attention to “humiliation and prayer.”
- Do not let go of the hartal.
- Join the Satyagraha Sabhas to fight without violence.

(ii) Rowlatt Satyagraha – First All-India Protest

The first large action across the whole country was against the British, though it was mostly in cities.
There were many riots and strikes.
To stop them, the British used force.

(iii) Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)

On the day of Baisakhi, General Dyer told his men to shoot at peaceful protesters in Amritsar.
Thousands of people were hurt and hundreds of people died.
In protest, Rabindranath Tagore gave up his knighthood.

(iv) Hindu-Muslim Unity in the Movement

Gandhi pushed for Hindus and Muslims to work together in the fight for freedom.
He felt that all religions belonged in India and wanted them to help each other.

Knighthood – An honour granted by the British Crown for exceptional personal achievement or public service.

2C. Khilafat agitation and the Non-Cooperation Movement

(i) The Khilafat Issue (1920)

The British forced a harsh treaty on the Turkish Sultan (Khalifa) after World War I.
Indian Muslims wanted the Khalifa to maintain control over Muslim holy places in the Ottoman Empire.
Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali were the first leaders of the Khilafat Movement.
Gandhi backed the movement
- Punjab did wrong during the Jallianwala Bagh killings.
- Urge for Swaraj (independent rule).

(ii) Launch of the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

The Indians stopped working with the British rule.
Important things done:
- Students quit schools and colleges run by the British.
- For example, Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari, and Asaf Ali all quit their jobs as lawyers.
- British names were given back, and clothes from other countries were burned in public.
The amount of British cloth that was brought in dropped sharply.
The movement grew all over India and led to a huge wave of opposition.

2D. People’s initiatives

(i) Different Ways People Protested

To follow Gandhi’s plan, some people fought against British power without violence.
Many people had different ideas about what he meant and connected it to problems in their own communities.

(ii) Protests Across India

Kheda, Gujarat:
- Patidar peasants quietly protested against high land taxes.
Coastal Andhra & Tamil Nadu:
- The protest included blocking liquor stores with pickets.
Guntur, Andhra Pradesh (Forest Satyagrahas):
- Tribal people and poor peasants protested against limits on the forests.
- They did not pay any fees to let their cattle roam.
- People thought Gandhi would get rid of taxes and rules about forests.
- A lot of people said that “Gandhi Raj,” or self-rule, had come.
Sindh (Now in Pakistan):
- Muslim traders and peasants supported the Khilafat Movement.
Bengal:
- The Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance created strong Hindu-Muslim unity.
Punjab (Akali Movement):
- Sikh Akalis fought to get rid of mahants (priests) who were dishonest from gurdwaras.
- To make this a big protest, the British backed these dishonest mahants.
Assam (Tea Plantation Protests):
- Tea garden workers wanted to be paid more.
- They chanted “Gandhi Maharaj ki Jai” as they left British farms.
- The word “Krishna” was changed to “Gandhi Raja” in Assamese Vaishnava songs.

(iii) Impact of These Protests

Gandhi was seen as a leader, and people thought he would do what was right.
People from all over the country joined the movement, including farmers, workers, traders, and native people.

Picket – People protesting outside a building or shop to prevent others from entering.

Mahants – Religious functionaries of Sikh gurdwaras.

Illegal eviction – Forcible and unlawful throwing out of tenants from the land they rent.

2E. The people’s Mahatma

(i) People Saw Gandhi as a Messiah

Many people thought Gandhi would end their pain and make things fair.
The peasants hoped that he could help them fight the zamindars, who were the owners.
People who worked on farms thought he could help them get land.

(ii) Gandhi’s Goal: Unity, Not Conflict

He wanted people from different classes to get along and not fight.
However, people did things he didn’t mean them to.

(iii) Gandhi Was Given Credit for Local Victories

Example: Peasants in Pratapgarh (Uttar Pradesh) stopped illegal evictions.
- They won the fight but believed Gandhi did it.

(iv) Actions Beyond Gandhian Principles

People from the tribes and the villages used Gandhi’s name to excuse doing things that were against what he believed.
This showed how much they trusted him, even when they didn’t do things the way he did them.

2F. The happenings of 1922–1929

(i) Chauri Chaura Incident & Gandhi’s Reaction (1922)

February 1922: Peasants burned a police station in Chauri Chaura, U.P.
Reason: Police provoked a peaceful protest by firing.
22 officers died in the violence.
Gandhi, who condemned violence, ended the Non-Cooperation Movement immediately.

(ii) Shift in Congress Strategy (Mid-1920s)

Congress leaders had different ideas about what to do next after the movement was over:
- Gandhi’s followers should focus on doing good social work in towns.
- Motilal Nehru and Chitta Ranjan Das said, “Fight elections to the councils and change British policies from the inside.”
In 1930, Gandhi’s work in the villages helped the Congress for the Civil Disobedience Movement grow.

(iii) New Political Developments (Mid-1920s)

Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) → A Hindu nationalist organization.
Communist Party of India (CPI) → Focused on workers’ and peasants’ rights.
Bhagat Singh and other revolutionaries became active during this time.

(iv) Congress Declares “Purna Swaraj” (1929)

1929: As president of the Congress, Jawaharlal Nehru set the goal of Purna Swaraj, or “Complete Independence.”
“Independence Day” was marked all over India on January 26, 1930.

It takes a loud voice to make the deaf hear. Inquilab Zindabad!”

Revolutionary nationalists such as Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad, Sukhdev, and others wanted to fight against the colonial rule and the rich exploiting classes through a revolution of workers and peasants. For this purpose, they founded the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) in 1928 at Ferozeshah Kotla in Delhi. On 17 December 1928, Bhagat Singh, Azad, and Rajguru assassinated Saunders, a police officer who was involved in the lathi charge that had caused the death of Lala Lajpat Rai. On 8 April 1929, Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly. The aim, as their leaflet explained, was not to kill but “to make the deaf hear” and to remind the foreign government of its callous exploitation. Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were executed on March 23; Bhagat Singh’s age at that time was only 23.

3. The March to Dandi

(i) The Fight for Purna Swaraj (1930)

People had to fight for freedom; it wouldn’t just happen.
To protest British rule, Mahatma Gandhi chose to break the Salt Law.

(ii) The Salt March (Dandi March, 1930)

Why was the Salt Law unfair?
- The British controlled the production of salt and put a high tax on it.
- Taxing salt was unfair to everyone because it was an important thing.
From March to Denmark:
- He walked 240 miles to get from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi.
- Women, workers, and people from other tribes all joined him in large numbers.
- To break the law, protesters got natural salt and made their own.
Response from Britain:
- Peaceful protesters were jailed and beaten.
- Police caught a lot of people, including Gandhi.

(iii) Outcome: Government of India Act (1935) & Elections (1937)

Britain had to make changes because of the pressure from the freedom fight.
Indian states were given some freedom by the Government of India Act (1935).
In 1937, there were elections, and Congress won 7 of the 11 provinces.

(iv) Congress Resigns Over World War II (1939)

In 1939, World War II began.
America was ready to help Great Britain fight Hitler, but only if India got its freedom after the war.
The British refused, so leaders of the Congress quit to show their displeasure.

Women in the freedom struggle: Ambabai from Karnataka

Women from diverse backgrounds participated in the national movement. Young and old, single and married, they came from rural and urban areas, from both conservative and liberal homes. Their involvement was significant for the freedom struggle, for the women’s movement, and for themselves personally. Both British officials and Indian nationalists felt that women’s participation gave the national struggle an immense force. Participation in the freedom movement brought women out of their homes. It gave them a place in the professions, in the governance of India, and it could pave the way for equality with men. What such participation meant for women is best recounted by them. Ambabai of Karnataka had been married at age twelve. Widowed at sixteen, she picketed foreign cloth and liquor shops in Udipi. She was arrested, served a sentence and was rearrested. Between prison terms she made speeches, taught spinning, and organised prabhat pheris. Ambabai regarded these as the happiest days of her life because they gave it a new purpose and commitment. Women, however, had to fight for their right to participate in the movement. During the Salt Satyagraha, for instance, even Mahatma Gandhi was initially opposed to women’s participation. Sarojini Naidu had to persuade him to allow women to join the movement.

Provincial autonomy- Capacity of the provinces to make relatively independent decisions while remaining within a federation.

4. Quit India and Later

(i) Gandhi’s Call for Immediate Freedom

During World War II, Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement in 1942.
Demand: The British must leave India immediately.
Slogan: “Do or Die,” meaning fight for freedom, but without violence.

(ii) British Reaction & Spread of the Movement

Gandhi and other leaders were jailed immediately, but the movement spread across India.
Students, peasants, and youth joined in large numbers, leaving schools and colleges.
People attacked British symbols of power like government buildings and transport systems.
In some areas, Indians set up their own local governments.

(iii) Harsh British Repression

Over 90,000 Indians were arrested.
By the end of 1943, around 1,000 protesters were killed in police firings.
The British used extreme force, including firing from airplanes, to crush protests.

(iv) Impact of the Movement

Though suppressed, the Quit India Movement weakened British control.
It proved that India would no longer accept foreign rule.
It was one of the final major movements before India gained independence in 1947.

A radical nationalist with socialist leanings, Bose did not share Gandhiji’s ideal of ahimsa, though he respected him as the “Father of the Nation.”In January 1941, he secretly left his Calcutta home, went to Singapore via Germany, and raised the Azad Hind Fauj or the Indian National Army (INA). To free India from British control, in 1944, the INA tried to enter India through Imphal and Kohima but the campaign failed. The INA members were imprisoned and tried. People across the country, from all walks of life, participated in the movement against the INA trials.

4A. Towards Independence and Partition

(i) Muslim League’s Demand for Independent States (1940)

The Muslim League established “Independent States” in the northwest and eastern parts of India in 1940.
It didn’t say anything about partition or Pakistan in the motion.

(ii) Why Did the League Want a Separate Nation?

The League started to see Muslims as a separate group from Hindus in the late 1930s.
Reasons for believing this:
- Hindus and Muslims had problems with each other in the 1920s and 1930s.
- Elections in 1937:
  - Most of the states went for Congress.
  - The League thought that in a democracy, Muslims would always be a small group.
  - Congress wouldn’t work with the League to make a government in the United Provinces.

(iii) Growing Support for the League (1940s)

The League was able to get support because Congress failed to get the Muslim people to work together.
Most Congress leaders were in jail during World War II (1940–1945), and the League grew its power.
Britain tried to get Congress and the League to agree to India’s freedom after the war in 1945, but they failed.
- The League said it spoke for all Muslims.
- Many Muslims still backed this, so Congress turned it down.

(iv) 1946 Elections & Cabinet Mission Plan

1946: The Elections
- Congress won most of the general elections.
- The Muslim League got most of the seats set aside for Muslims, which made its call for Pakistan stronger.
In March 1946, the British Cabinet met to
- India should stay one country, but it should be part of a loose confederation that gives Muslim-majority places their own power.
- Congress and the League could not come to an agreement, so the country had to be split up.

(v) “Direct Action Day” and Widespread Violence (16 August 1946)

The Muslim League began a large-scale movement for Pakistan.
“Direct Action Day” on August 16, 1946, caused riots in Calcutta.
There were killings all over northern India by March 1947, and thousands of people were killed.

(vi) The Human Tragedy of Partition (1947)

Many hundreds of thousands of people died in riots.
Women had to deal with terrible abuse and pain.
Millions were forced to leave their homes and cross into India or Pakistan as refugees.