Chapter 4 – Tribals Dikus and the Vision of a Golden Age Notes

Content Structure

1. Introduction
2. How did Tribal Groups Live?
- 2A. Some were Jhum cultivators
- 2B. Some were hunters and gatherers
- 2C. Some herded animals
- 2D. Some took to settled cultivation
3. How did Colonial Rule Affect Tribal Lives?
- 3A. What happened to tribal chiefs?
- 3B. What happened to the shifting cultivators?
- 3C. Forest laws and their impact
- 3D. The problem with trade
- 3E. The search for work
4. A Closer Look
5. Birsa Munda

1. Introduction

(i) Birsa Munda and His Movement

In 1895, Birsa was seen in the forests and villages of Chottanagpur, Jharkhand.
People believed he had special powers—he could heal diseases and grow crops abundantly.
Birsa claimed that God had sent him to help his people and free them from the control of dikus (outsiders).
Thousands followed him, believing he was Bhagwan (God) who would solve their problems.

(ii) Tribal Struggles Under British Rule

Birsa was born into the Munda tribe, but his followers included Santhals and Oraons.
Under British rule, tribal traditions, jobs, and religion were under threat.

(iii) Tribal Societies and Their Way of Life

Tribal customs were different from Brahman traditions.
Unlike caste-based societies, tribes did not have strict social divisions.
People in the same tribe saw each other as one big family.
However, some were richer or more powerful than others.

2. How did Tribal Groups Live?

By the 19th century, tribal people in India had many different jobs.

2A. Some were Jhum cultivators

Some tribal people practised Jhum cultivation on small forest patches.
They cut tree branches to let sunlight reach the ground and burnt plants to clear the land.
The ash from burning made the soil fertile.
They used an axe to cut trees and a hoe to loosen the soil.
Instead of ploughing, they scattered seeds on the field.
After harvesting, they moved to a new field, allowing the old one to rest for years.
Shifting cultivators lived in hilly and forested areas of northeast and central India.
They needed free movement and access to forest land for farming.

2B. Some were hunters and gatherers

Many tribal groups survived by hunting and gathering forest products.
They saw forests as essential for their survival.
The Khonds of Orissa were a hunting community:
- They hunted together and shared the meat.
- They ate fruits and roots and used sal and Mahua seeds for cooking oil.
- They used forest herbs for medicine and sold forest products in local markets.
- Weavers and leather workers bought Kusum and Palash flowers from them to colour cloth and leather.

(i) How Did They Get Rice and Grains?

They exchanged forest products for rice and grains.
Sometimes, they bought goods with their small earnings.
Some did odd jobs like carrying loads, building roads, or working on farms.
When forest resources decreased, many had to search for work as labourers.

(ii) The Baigas of Central India

The Baigas saw themselves as people of the forest.
They believed they should only live on forest resources.
Working as labourers was seen as beneath their dignity.

(iii) Dependence on Traders and Moneylenders

Tribal people needed to buy and sell goods they couldn’t produce.
They depended on traders and moneylenders for their needs.
Traders sold goods at high prices.
Moneylenders gave loans with high interest, leading to debt and poverty.
Tribals saw traders and moneylenders as outsiders who caused their suffering.

2C. Some herded animals

Many tribal people lived by herding and raising animals.
They were pastoralists who moved with their cattle or sheep as seasons changed.
When grass in one area was used up, they moved to another place.
Some well-known tribal herders:
- Van Gujjars (Punjab hills) – Cattle herders
- Labadis (Andhra Pradesh) – Cattle herders
- Gaddis (Kulu) – Shepherds
- Bakarwals (Kashmir) – Goat herders

Baiga and Khond Work Cycle (As observed by Verrier Elwin in the 1930s-40s)

(i) Seasonal Work Cycle of the Baigas

Chait (March-April)	1. Women collected leftover crop stalks. 2. Men cut large trees and went on a ritual hunt, starting at full moon. 3. Bamboo traps were used for hunting. 4. Women gathered fruits like Sago, Tamarind, and Mushrooms. 5. Baiga women collected roots (kanda) and Mahua seeds. 6. The Baigas were known as the best hunters in Central India.
Baisakh (April-May)	1. Forest burning began. 2. Women collected unburnt wood to use as fuel. 3. Men hunted closer to villages.
Jeth (May-June)	1. Sowing of crops started. 2. Hunting continued.
Asadh to Bhadon (June- September)	1. Men worked in fields, taking care of crops.
Kuar (September-October)	1. Beans ripened, providing food.
Kartik (October-November)	1. Kutki (a grain) was ready for harvest.
Aghan (November-December)	1. All crops were harvested.
Pus (December-January)	1. Winnowing of grains took place. 2. Time for celebrations, dances, and marriages.
Magh (January-February)	1. People moved to new fields (beware). 2. Hunting and gathering became the main food source.

(ii) Second and Third-Year Work Cycle

Year – 2	More time for hunting, as fewer crops needed to be grown.
Year – 3	Forest products were needed to add to their diet.

Fallow	A field is left uncultivated for a while so that the soil recovers fertility.
Sal	A tree.
Mahua	A flower that is eaten or used to make alcohol

2D. Some took to settled cultivation

Before the 19th century, some tribal people stopped moving and began farming in one place. They used ploughs and slowly gained land rights.

(i) Tribal Land Ownership

In tribes like the Mundas of Chottanagpur, land belonged to the whole clan.
All members had equal rights, as they were descendants of the first settlers.
Some became powerful chiefs, while others remained followers.
Chiefs rented out land instead of farming it themselves.

(ii) British Views on Tribes

The British saw settled tribes like the Gonds and Santhals as more civilised.
They thought forest tribes were wild and needed to be settled and civilised.

Bewar – A term used in Madhya Pradesh for shifting cultivation.

3. How did Colonial Rule Affect Tribal Lives?

The lives of tribal groups changed during British rule.

3A. What happened to tribal chiefs?

Before the British arrived, tribal chiefs had great power. They controlled land, economy, and administration. Some had their own police and made rules for land and forests.

Changes Under British Rule

Chiefs kept land titles and could rent out land but lost administrative power.
They had to follow British laws instead of making their own rules.
They were forced to pay tribute to the British.
Chiefs had to control their own people for the British.
They lost respect and authority and could no longer perform their traditional duties.

3B. What happened to the shifting cultivators?

The British wanted tribal people to settle and become farmers for easier control and tax collection.
They introduced land settlements:
- Measured land and fixed ownership.
- Set tax payments for landowners and tenants.

Problems with Settling Jhum Cultivators

Plough farming failed in dry areas with little water.
Jhum cultivators struggled as crops didn’t grow well.
In northeast India, Jhum farmers refused to stop shifting farming.
After protests, the British allowed shifting cultivation in some areas.

3C. Forest laws and their impact

Tribal life depended on forests, so British forest laws affected them greatly.
The British took control of forests and made them state property.
Reserved Forests were created for timber, and tribals were banned from:
- Moving freely
- Practicing Jhum cultivation
- Collecting fruits or hunting
Jhum cultivators lost their livelihood and had to move elsewhere for work.

(i) British Need for Forest Workers

The British needed labour to cut trees and transport logs.
To solve this, they gave Jhum cultivators small forest lands but forced them to work for the Forest Department.
This led to the creation of forest villages to ensure cheap labour.

(ii) Tribal Resistance to Forest Laws

Tribal groups opposed British rules and continued banned practices.
Some rebelled openly against the laws.
Examples:
- Songram Sangma’s revolt (1906) in Assam.
- Forest Satyagraha (1930s) in Central Provinces.

(iii) Verrier Elwin’s Visit to the Baigas (1930s)

Verrier Elwin visited the Baigas of central India in the 1930s.
He studied their customs, art, and folklore.
He recorded songs about their suffering under British rule.

3D. The problem with trade

In the 19th century, traders and moneylenders entered forests more often. They bought forest produce, gave loans, and hired tribals for wages. Tribal groups took time to understand the effects of these changes.

Silk Growers’ Struggles

In the 18th century, Indian silk was in high demand in Europe.
The East India Company pushed for more silk production.
Santhals in Hazaribagh (Jharkhand) reared cocoons.
Traders’ agents gave loans and bought cocoons cheaply.
Growers were paid ₹3-4 per 1,000 cocoons, but traders sold them at five times the price.
Middlemen made huge profits, while silk growers remained poor.
Many tribals saw traders as their enemies.

3E. The search for work

Many tribals had to leave their homes to find work.
In the late 19th century, tea plantations and mining grew.
Tribals were hired to work in:
- Tea plantations in Assam.
- Coal mines in Jharkhand.
Contractors paid them very low wages.
They were not allowed to return home, making life even harder.

4. A Closer Look

(i) Tribal Rebellions Against British Rule

In the 19th and 20th centuries, tribal groups rebelled against:
- New laws and restrictions on their way of life.
- High taxes were imposed by the British.
- Cheating by traders and moneylenders.

(ii) Major Tribal Rebellions

Kol Rebellion (1831–32)
Santhal Rebellion (1855)
Bastar Rebellion (1910, Central India)
Warli Revolt (1940, Maharashtra)
Birsa Munda’s movement was also part of these uprisings.

5. Birsa Munda

(i) Birsa’s Early Life

Born in the mid-1870s, Birsa was the son of a poor father.
He grew up grazing sheep, playing the flute, and dancing in the local akhara.
His family moved from place to place due to poverty.
As a child, he heard stories of past Munda uprisings and saw leaders urging people to fight for their land.
They spoke of a golden past when Mundas were free from dikus (outsiders).

(ii) Birsa’s Education and Influences

Birsa studied in a missionary school and heard that Mundas could regain their lost rights by becoming Christians.
Later, he spent time with a Vaishnav preacher, learned about purity and piety, and wore a sacred thread.
He was influenced by many ideas and wanted to reform tribal society.
He urged the Mundas to:
- Give up liquor.
- Keep their villages clean.
- Stop believing in witchcraft and sorcery.
However, he later turned against missionaries and landlords, seeing them as ruining the Munda way of life.

(iii) The Birsa Movement

In 1895, Birsa urged his followers to restore their glorious past.
He spoke of a time when:
- Mundas lived peacefully and farmed their own land.
- They built embankments, tapped springs, and planted trees.
- They lived honestly without harming each other.
Birsa wanted his people to settle down, work on their land, and farm again.

(iv) British Reaction and Birsa’s Arrest

The British saw the movement as a threat because Birsa wanted to:
- Remove missionaries, moneylenders, landlords, and the British government.
- Establish a Munda kingdom (Munda Raj) under his rule.
The British arrested Birsa in 1895 and jailed him for two years.

(v) Revolt and Final Years

After his release in 1897, Birsa travelled to villages to gather support.
He used traditional symbols and urged people to destroy “Ravana” (dikus and Europeans).
His followers:
- Attacked police stations and churches.
- Raided the property of moneylenders and zamindars.
- Raised the white flag as a symbol of Birsa Raj.
In 1900, Birsa died of cholera, and the movement faded out.

(vi) Impact of the Movement

The British introduced new laws to protect tribal land from dikus.
The movement proved that tribal people could protest against injustice in their own way, using their own symbols and rituals.